Ancient Maya Beekeeping The Stingless Bee (Melipona beecheii)

Beekeeping—providing a safe residence for bees in order to exploit them—is an ancient technology in both the Old and New Worlds. The oldest known Old World beehives are from Tel Rehov, in what is today Israel, about 900 B.C.E.; the oldest known in the Americas is from the Late Preclassic or Protoclassic period Maya site of Nakum, in the Yucatà ¡n peninsula of Mexico, between 300 B.C.E.–200/250 C.E. American Bees Before the Spanish colonial period and long before the introduction of European honeybees in the 19th century, several Mesoamerican societies including Aztec and Maya kept hives of stingless American bees. There are about 15 different bee species native to the Americas, most of which live in humid tropical and subtropical forests. In the Maya region, the bee of choice was Melipona beecheii, called xunaan kab or colel-kab (royal lady) in the Maya language. As you might guess from the name, American bees dont sting—but they will bite with their mouths to defend their hives. Wild stingless bees live in hollow trees; they dont make honeycombs but rather store their honey in round sacks of wax. They make less honey than European bees, but American bee honey is said to be sweeter. Precolumbian Uses of Bees The products of bees—honey, wax, and royal jelly—were used in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica for religious ceremonies, medicinal purposes, as a sweetener, and to make the hallucinogenic honey mead called balche. In his 16th century text Relacion de las Cosas Yucatà ¡n, Spanish bishop Diego de Landa reported that indigenous people traded beeswax and honey for cacao seeds (chocolate) and precious stones. After the conquest, tax tributes of honey and wax went to the Spanish, who also used beeswax in religious activities. In 1549, over 150 Maya villages paid 3 metric tons of honey and 281 metric tons of wax in tax to the Spanish. Honey was eventually replaced as a sweetener by sugar cane, but stingless bee wax continued in importance all through the colonial period. Modern Maya Beekeeping Indigenous Yucatec and Chol  in the Yucatan peninsula today still practice beekeeping on communal lands, using modified traditional techniques. Bees are kept in hollow tree sections called jobà ³n, with the two ends closed by a stone or ceramic plug and a central hole through which bees can enter. The jobà ³n are stored in a horizontal position and the honey and wax is retrieved a couple times a year by removing the end plugs, called panuchos. Typically the average length of the modern Maya jobon is between 50-60 centimeters (20-24 inches) long, with a diameter of about 30 cm (12 in) and walls more than 4 cm (1.5 in thick). The hole for the bee entryway is typically less than 1.5 cm (.6 in) in diameter.   At the Maya site of Nakum, and in a context firmly dated to the late preclassic period  between 300 B.C.E.–C.E. 200, was found a ceramic jobon (or quite possibly an effigy). Archaeology of Maya Beekeeping The jobon from the Nakum site is smaller than modern ones, measuring only 30.7 cm long (12 in), with a maximum diameter of 18 cm (7 in) and an entry hole only 3 cm (1.2 in) in diameter. The external walls are covered with striated designs. It has removable ceramic panuchos at each end, with diameters of 16.7 and 17 cm (about 6.5 in). The difference is size may be a result of the different bee species being taken care of and protected.   The labor associated with beekeeping is mostly protection and custodial duties; keeping the hives away from animals (mostly armadillos and raccoons) and the weather. That is achieved by stacking the hives in an A-shaped frame and building a thatch-roofed palapa or lean-to over the whole: beehives are typically found in small groups near residences.   Maya Bee Symbolism Because most of the materials used to make beehives—wood, wax, and honey—are organic, archaeologists have identified the presence of beekeeping at pre-Columbian sites by the recovery of paired panuchos. Artifacts such as incense burners in the shapes of beehives, and images of the so-called Diving God, likely a representation of the bee god Ah Mucen Cab, have been found on the walls of temples at Sayil and other Maya sites. The Madrid Codex (known to scholars as the Troano or Tro-Cortesianus Codex) is one of the few surviving books of the ancient Maya. Among its illustrated pages are male and female deities harvesting and collecting honey, and conducting various rituals associated with beekeeping. The Aztec Mendoza Codex shows images of towns giving jars of honey to the Aztecs for tribute.   Current Status of American Bees While beekeeping is still a practice by Maya farmers, because of the introduction of the more productive European honeybee, the loss of forest habitat, the Africanization of honey bees in the 1990s, and even climate change bringing destructive storms into the Yucatan, stingless beekeeping has been severely reduced. Most of the bees farmed today are European honey bees.   Those European honey bees (Apis mellifera) were introduced in the Yucatan in the late 19th or early 20th centuries. Modern apiculture with bees and using moveable frames began to be practiced after the 1920s and making Apis honey became a principal economic activity for the rural Maya area by the 1960s and 1970s.  In 1992, Mexico was the fourth largest honey producer in the world, with an average annual production of 60,000 metric tons of honey and 4,200 metric tons of beeswax. A total of 80% of the beehives in Mexico are kept by small farmers as a subsidiary or hobby crop. Although stingless bee farming was not actively pursued for decades, today there is a regrowth in interest and a sustained effort by enthusiasts and indigenous farmers who are beginning to restore the practice of stingless bee farming to the Yucatan.   Sources Bianco B. 2014. The log hives of Yucatan. Anthropology Now 6(2):65-77.Garcia-Frapolli E, Toledo VM, and Martinez-Alier J. 2008. Adaptations of a Yucatec Maya Multiple-Use Ecological Management Strategy to Ecotourism. Ecology and Society 13.Imre DM. 2010. Ancient Maya beekeeping. University of Michigan Undergraduate Research Journal 7:42-50.Villanueva-Gutià ©rrez R, Roubik DW, and Colli-Ucan W. 2005. Extinction of Melipona beecheii and traditional beekeeping in the Yucatan peninsula. Bee World 86(2):35-41.Villanueva-Gutià ©rrez R, Roubik DW, Colli-Ucà ¡n W, Gà ¼emez-Ricalde FJ, and Buchmann SL. 2013. A Critical View of Colony Losses in Managed Mayan Honey-Making Bees (Apidae: Meliponini) in the Heart of Zona Maya. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 86(4):352-362.Zralka J, Koszkul W, Radnicka K, Soleto Santos LE, and Hermes B. 2014. Excavations in Nakum Structure 99: New data on Proclassic rituals and Precolumbian Maya beekeeping. Estudios de Cultura Maya 64:85-117.

Effects Of Obamacare On Health Care - 1239 Words

Effects of Obamacare Obamacare aim is to provide better affordability of health care and enhanced health care access to Americans, which hopes to put consumers back in charge of their health care. It also aims to include upgrades to government-run Medicare and Medicaid. The purpose of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) is to provide affordability to Americans. However, the extensive cost to facilitate the phases of this program, and how these expenditures will ultimately be financed, may negatively affect the citizens of this nation. The Supreme Court passed the bill with the intention of having legal residents and citizens of the United States paying less for health coverage. The PPACA was implemented so that individuals would have coverage with fewer stipulations and limitations. The number of Americans who do not have health insurance has grown rapidly over the years. The high cost of premiums implemented by insurance companies is regarded as one of the leading causes of this problem. Some people are not financially competent to purchase the insurance they need due to these prices. However, the PPACA health care reform assures to make health insurance coverage available to people who are legal residents of the US. Proof of insurance coverage is compulsory of all Americans while insurers are free to charge what they want. Coverage is universal under the new law, and it demands that all Americans obtain coverage. As of this year millions ofShow MoreRelatedObamacare : The Affordable Health Care Act1193 Words   |  5 PagesLivingston English IV 30 October 2015 Obamacare Health Care Monstrosity With every new election comes new legislature the 2008 election had to deal with the hot new topic the Affordable Health Care Act (ACA). Then when Barack Obama was elected into office, he wanted it to be changed to Obamacare. Obamacare and the ACA is relatively the same thing. It is referred to as Obamacare because he is the one who signed for it to be passed. Due to the stress that Obamacare has put on the elderly, state businessesRead MoreEssay on Obamacare and Small Businesses 1289 Words   |  6 Pages Obamacare and Small Businesses Adverse Effects Obamacare seems to have a plethora of negative elements attached to it. When it comes to small businesses, Obamacare might potentially have an adverse effect on the employers and workers. However, at this time we cannot do anything for fellow citizens that are feeling the emotional and monetary distress that they’re enduring as a result of Obamacare. There is a possibility Obamacare will have a negative impact on small businesses. Attributable to theRead MoreObamacare And Affordable Care Act997 Words   |  4 PagesCase White Professor Eastman English 1020 29 January 2015 Obamacare’s Healthier America Health care has been a controversial topic of discussion for all Americans since it was put in effect many years ago. Currently the biggest debate of Healthcare up to date is Obama’s Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, also known as Obamacare, is a Health care Reform that is a governmental attempt to make basic health care easily obtainable. However, there are no benefits without cost in situations like thisRead MoreThe Patient Protection And Affordable Care Act1636 Words   |  7 PagesAffordable Care Act (PPACA) frequently known as â€Å"The Affordable Care Act† (ACA) or â€Å"Obamacare,† is the United States decree authorized into law by President Barack Obama on March 23, 2010 (Group, 2014). The principle of the Affordable Care Act was to strengthen the quality and affordability of health insurance and decrease the uninsured tariffs by magnifying public and private insurance exposure. In the community relations ambition for President Obama’s t akeover of the American health care system, heRead MoreHealth Care Controversy958 Words   |  4 Pages Health Care Controversy Essay ObamaCare, also known as the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, is a Health care reform law that was signed on March 23, 2010. ObamaCare’s goal is to provide more Americans with affordable health care insurance. ObamaCare also hopes to improve the quality of healthcare and health insurance in America, regulate the healthcare industry, and reduce the cost of healthcare in the United States. ObamaCare is made up of ten titles; I: Quality,Read MoreHunger of Memory Precis1278 Words   |  6 PagesEnglish 116 Professor J. Flynn November 06, 2013 To Care or Not to Care: Obamacare For the past years, our country’s health care programs have been asked and petitioned to be improved. President Obama took action into account and decided it was time for our nation to have an affordable and well operated health care program, known as Obamacare. A bill that would allow us to grow and succeed at an affordable cost, but to what expense? Obamacare has severe consequences that will harm our nation’sRead MoreThe Effects Of Negative Effects On Obama Health Care System1687 Words   |  7 PagesAmerican Health Care System: An Analysis of Negative Effects on Obama Health Care Reformation America is an inclusive country at least about healthcare expenditure. The Americans spend much more than other rich country around the world, but they do not achieve more for it. They receive about the same health consequences but do not take care of everybody like other rich countries cover and healthcare system expense in the United States (U.S.) is extremely high. Even though much higher spending, theRead MoreThe Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act: An Analysis of Argumentative Articles941 Words   |  4 PagesObamacare The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (a.k.a. Obamacare) was signed into law on March 23, 2010, and generated much controversy as a regard of the effects that people believed it was going to have on the U.S. The media world has gotten actively involved in discussing the act and while some support its principal ideas, others lobby with regard to how it is going to seriously destabilize the health care system. From an act meant to guarantee that more people in the U.S. have accessRead MoreObamacare : The Affordable Health Care Act1610 Words   |  7 Pagesmonumental in the health care world. These changes have been positive as well as negative. This new government policy has come about through the Affordable Care Act, more commonly known as Obamacare. This new program has been so purely monumental, because government until then had not been directly involved with health care as much as they are. Benefits include lower costs, and thousands of uninsured individuals and families with health care. Downsides are more and higher taxes, and health insurance goesRead MoreThe United States And Health Care1159 Words   |  5 Pagesuniversal health care plan but the politicians of the day would never allow the federal government that type of power and control. At his time in American history healthcare was thought to be a personal issue or at least an issue that would be left to the states or even smaller government agencies. After World War II many politicians tried and failed to pass a national healthcare plan until Obama Care was passed and forced on the people of the United States. The reality is that Obama care is not even

Marketing and Dove Free Essays

Pricing Strategy 2. 2. 1Factors affecting pricing decisions (Types of market) The internal factor that affects the pricing decision of Dove is based on marketing strategy, objectives and mix. We will write a custom essay sample on Marketing and Dove or any similar topic only for you Order Now The Dove Company mostly is working on the market of women’s personal care. Dove has a large range of products from soap to hair shampoo. The company strategy and objective is to have a high level of segmentation to answer to the many needs of the women’s personal care market and to widening stereotype view of beauty in younger generation, pre-teen and teenager girls. Besides, the market mix strategy is the price decisions must be coordinates with product design, distribution, and promotion decisions to form a consistent and effective marketing program. Pricing Strategy of Dove hair shampoo is largely determined by the decisions on Market Positioning of product differentiation. So, Dove has been positioned as a product fulfilling the needs of high end consumer class. Dove Company is constantly upgrading time to time to meet the customer needs, such as Dove Straight amp; Silky Therapy, Daily Shine Therapy, Dandruff Therapy, and Intense Damage Therapy with the affordable price. In addition, the external factor that affects the pricing decision of Dove is based on the market and demand. Dove Company is under the Monopolistic Competition market because there have a lot of buyers and sellers of differentiated products. Dove Company also is the product differentiation that are selling different product for the same purpose such as Pantene, Sunsilk , Rejoice, and so on. Besides, Dove is also price maker and spends a lot of money in advertisements to convince their customers. Last but not least is the competitor’s strategies and price. The competitors of Dove are Sunsilk, Rejoice, Pantene, L’Oreal and so on. According our survey that doing at Kampar area, the competitors are offering the lower price if compare to Dove. For example, Sunsilk 700ml is offering their shampoo product at RM17. 50 and Rejoice is offering at RM21. 50 while Dove is offering the same product at RM25. 90. So, it has been influenced the customers who is price sensitivity. Furthermore, the customer purchasing power, government regulation, economic conditions also becomes the external factor affecting the prices. . 2. 2New Product Pricing Strategy Dove is using the Market Penetration for the New Product Pricing Strategies because they have many competitors like Sunsilk, Pantene, Rejoice and so on to win the market share. When Dove Company introduces the new product to the market, it will set a low initial price in order for the brand to â€Å"penetrate† the market quickly and deeply. For example, when the 10th anniversary, Dove wil l give the promotion by reducing the price and give them discount and offer the new product sample to give the customer trying. As compare above, Dove is offering a lower price from range RM 18 until RM 22. 50 and same volume compare (700 ml) to Sunsilk in the shampoo market. For increased market penetration, Dove has launching the ‘Campaign for Real Beauty’ where the representative will move to the market segments and will do free sampling. Dove’s revolutionary campaign was for the firming lotion which features women of all shapes and sizes thus breaking down the stereotypic definition of beauty – tall, thin and being fair. Their ads have created a ripple in the market with their campaign successfully catching the fancy of both the industry and consumers as being something different. Earlier, the ads used celebrities to promote their beauty products. They are also not for the super skinny models. The Dove ads challenge the traditional concept of beauty. This make the customer realize that Dove cares and penetration will be achieved in newly selected market segments. How to cite Marketing and Dove, Papers

England Hoping a Win Against New Zealand

Question: Write an Original news story of England is hoping a win against New Zealand? Answer: Dated 16.02.15: England lost their first match against Australia at ICC cricket World cup 2015. Chasing a score of 342 against Australia in home ground was not so simple. End of the day result was same as predicted. England lost the game by 111 runs. Followers of the team England were disappointed but hope is there. The second match will be a very hard match for England because New Zealand already wins there first match against Sri Lanka. After losing the 1st match England decides to give there two hundred percent at their 2nd one. Team England may be disappointed with judgment of the umpire because the run out given by leg umpire was incorrect and ICC also agrees with this fact but the game must go on and England is hopeful that they will surely make their debut win against New Zealand. As per the facts and figures of World cup New Zealand is one of the toughest contestants whos having a record of being a part of semi finalist for 6 times but never been a part of finals. England is a team who never won world cup but they are bagged the title of runner up three times. After 1992 England not reached final of any world cup. Another fact is New Zealand will get the home ground advantage. So with lots of pressure and challenge England will have to win their second match for the better positioning in the point table. Coach of the England team is also hopeful of their victory against New Zealand at Wellington. Cricket fever is rising in fans and followers. This is a game of hope and tremendous effort. Everybody wants to see their team in the final so lets the best team win.

The Indian Removal Act and Its Effects free essay sample

The Indian Removal Act and Its Effects As the United States developed and carved its path to becoming a great nation, a great number of issues arose. Issues, which if not dealt with effectively and in best interest of the young nation, would retard and thus stunt Americas journey to achieving what it has become today: A great nation. One such issue that had to be dealt with was the Indian removal to the west. The colonies were expanding and growing in number, which meant more land was needed. Colonists encouraged the Indians to move west in order to achieve this.When Andrew Jackson was granted presidency, he passed the Indian Removal Act in 1830, which mainly stated that Indian removal was both a priority and a policy. Although many argue that the Indian Removal Act was unjust and unfair, it was an essential and necessary measure which needed to be taken in order for the United States to grow both geographically and intellectually as a nation. We will write a custom essay sample on The Indian Removal Act and Its Effects or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page When Jackson proposed the Indian Removal Act, Chief Justice John Marshall and the Supreme Court rule against it.Jackson refuses to support Supreme Court rule and states John Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it. Jackson goes on to pass the law, and in the process, he also proposed voluntary emigration in the west for the Indians. He felt that the Indians could preserve their dying culture in the west, by separating them from contact with the settlements of whites, granting them liberty from the power of America, and enabling these Indian tribes to pursue happiness in their own way and under their own rude institutions.One can argue that the taking of the land that by natural right belonged to these Indian tribes was unjust, and that the Jackson policy was against the Supreme Court rule, but like previously mentioned before, certain measures had to be taken in order for the United States to keep going onward and forward on its quest to becoming a great nation. Jackson, and many others who also supported the Indian removal act, recognized this and thus were in favor of the relocation of the Indians to the west.No one stopped Thomas Jefferson when he went through with the Louisiana Purchase. Although it was against his own beliefs, Jefferson recognized the purchase as an opportune chance that would benefit the United States in its best interest. Jackson acted in the same way and for the same reasons when he passed the Indian removal act in 1830. The Trail of Tears as it came to be known, was the route to that Jackson had the Indians travel to their new homes out west over all a brutal and tragic way to have done so. As many as 100, 000 Indians were uprooted from their homes and were taken from their ancestral homeland to the Indian Territory out west. Many Indians died along the way, including 4,000 of the 1 5,000 Cherokees that made that march. It is definitely recognized that the Indian removal to the west could have accomplished in a more humane way. Be that as it may, one cannot deny that the Indian Removal Act itself not necessary for the onward growth of the United States.All in all, the Indian Removal Act and the Trail of Tears, no matter how tragic the loss and measures taken, was essential and necessary for the United States to grow both geographically and intellectual as a young nation. Jackson, with the best interests of America in mind with each and every one of the decisions he made, dealt with the issue in an ostensibly effective way.

The eNotes Blog And the Oxford Word of the Year isSelfie

And the Oxford Word of the Year isSelfie Must. Remind. Self..   The OED is not an arbiter of, but a chronicler of,   English language use. Every year, the Powers-That-Be lean over the windowsills located high atop their Ivory Towers and cock an ear towards the milling crowds below. When they hear a word they do not recognize being shouted often enough, they dip their quills into wells of octopus ink and inscribe that word on gold-rimmed parchment. Okay, not really.   Actually, its only been since 2004 that Oxford has selected a word of the year at all. Judy Pearsall, editorial director at Oxford, explains that a language usage program collects around 150m words of current English in use each month.   The word in 2013 that has become the most frequent was selfie. According to  The Guardian,   The word can be  traced back to a post on an Australian online forum in 2002: Um, drunk at a mates 21st, I tripped ofer [sic] and landed lip first (with front teeth coming a very close second) on a set of steps. I had a hole about 1cm long right through my bottom lip. And sorry about the focus, it was a selfie. So now we can blame Australia for both Crocodile Dundee  and  the word selfie! (Just kidding, mates!)   It is pretty incredible when you see the rise in usage in chart form: Curious what other words made the shortlist? They are: binge-watch (I just binge-watched the entire first season of  Orange is the New Black  in a single day!) bitcoin   (You can try to explain how bitcoin works to me a million times and I will never understand it.) bedroom tax (A lot less sexy than it sounds.) olinguito Seriously.. This is an  olinguito schmeat   (Dale!   Can you make me another schmeat sammich?) You dont want to know.   You clicked it,  didnt you showrooming   (Best Buy employee:   Can I help you? / Literally Everyone: No, thank you.just showrooming.) twerk (Ma! Call the vet!   Either the dogs sick or hes been watchin Miley videos again!) Yes, all worthy contenders.   But none outshone our navel-gazing, this time, quite literally.   As for myself, this is how I take selfies: *takes 50 selfies* *deletes 49* *stares at the one selfie till it turns ugly* *deletes that too*

God Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

God - Essay Example Here, premise 2 fails in the sense that all souls have a chance to know more about God since it is free and it is own choice to learn about him or not. All people are therefore in the position to go to heaven for they have the opportunity of choosing the good that God require of them despite their denominations. This is where we all stand a chance to deeply get the knowledge about the heavenly qualifications. Being a Christian for example, is not a guarantee ticket to heaven, one has to work hard by choosing and doing what is right which is mostly seen as what God desire of us. God thus exist and that is why we all can denote the good from the bad, wrong from right, as a belief for God helps us in choosing the good and moving from evil (Plantinga, 2009). For Christians, God is said to have intervened in various moments in the past according to the biblical point of view. During the Israelites exodus from Egypt, God first helped them by punishing pharaoh by sending plaques, which later led to their release. While crossing the red sea, in the desert where they faced many difficulties e.g. food shortages which he provided for them in form of manna from heaven (Plantinga, 2009). The Hindu family accepts the existence of God who is a creator. Having the law of karma, where they believe that most of human actions happen because they are being triggered by a supreme being. This god knows better about the humans helps them when they make mistakes and need assistance of picking up again. This karma is hence their only proof of Gods existence according to the Hindus. All this as much as they are different denominations, leads us to one point where all refer to ones faith God exist (Plantinga, 2009). In the other hand, the Muslims have faith in the existence of God because there was the revelation of their holy book the Qur’an which they believe to be the preexistence

Critically examine the ways in which practices of security are Essay

Critically examine the ways in which practices of security are changing in response to concerns about globalisation - Essay Example In this regard, information technology has virtually broken the geographical barriers to trade that had undermined economic development in the last century (Coaffee, 2006). Globalization has created as sense of interdependence in all realms of human existence resulting to both negative and positive consequences. On one hand, the developments form an enabling environment for attaining economic success, enhancement of better political systems in addition to promotion of peace and harmonious coexistence. On the other hand, globalization has created influential forces resulting to social fragmentation. Consequently, social vulnerabilities have occurred resulting to unprecedented levels of violence, conflict and insecurity. Moreover, economic disparities brought by globalization have occurred, causing economic crises across international borders. These events have created hardships across the world, which contributes significantly in development of security threats (Corva, 2008). Overview of insecurity in context to globalization Security threats have become global in nature and more serious because of wide spread application of information technology. According to Davis (2009) application of this technology has resulted to enhanced transfer and sharing of knowledge that has also been made possible by easy movement of people. Researchers attribute the increasing levels of insecurity to the effects of globalization. Combination of these developments coupled with the increasing economic interactions has resulted to mass resentment and problems that form the root cause of global insecurity. However, globalization has resulted to positive developments by offering new opportunities for the achieving economic growth and democracy (Davis, 2009). These positive effects of globalization can be used to counter the adverse effects of globalization by addressing its root causes. September 11 terrorist attacks in the United States highlighted the dangers of globalization whereby the Al-Qaida terror organization executed the attacks using the developments from globalization, including effective communication technologies, global financial networks, and easy movement of people because of better modes of transport (Davis 2009). The international community responded swiftly after the terror attack and since then, enforcement of security changed dramatically. Currently, security measures are not confined to surveillance but are now more extensive, addressing issues affecting human security such as democracy, climate change, poverty, immigration, in addition to drug trafficking (Davis, 2009). According to Heuer (1999), human security is concerned with how people live in the society and it ranges from political governance to the economic wellbeing of the people in local and international context. It entails how people exercise their free will, how they access market and social opportunities and whether they live in peace or conflict (Heuer, 1999). Campbell (2005) argued that human insecurity affects not only economic development, but also other realms of existence. In this respect Campbell, (2005) identified seven important areas of human security. These include economic, food, health security, environmental and personal security. In addition, community security and political security are important areas of concern for addressing the current security threats in the world. In a

Preamble of the US Constitution. Has the government accomplished the Essay

Preamble of the US Constitution. Has the government accomplished the goals established in the constitutions preamble - Essay Example Establish justice This goal can be illustrated by many examples, still the common feature they all have is a cruel fight against oppression of civilians and a great enthusiasm to protect human rights of the American nation (the African American civil rights movement of the 60s). Justice and the fight against discrimination have always existed nearby in America. When in the end of 60s the Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Sen. Robert F. Kennedy were assassinated, the concept of â€Å"justice† was undermined. Nevertheless, by putting great efforts in the fight against racial or gender oppression, American nation gained the right to live in the just country with no oppression or persecution. Ensure domestic tranquility An example illustrating the American’s government to ensure domestic tranquility can be shown by the 1968 Richard Nixon's political campaign when he underlined the importance of fight against crime and for law and order and the establishment of the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA). Another example was chosen from the Cold War period, when the nation was intimidated by the presence of the â€Å"bomb†. During that period the Government could not manage a shift of families’ transformation to â€Å"nuclear families† and thus the goal of tranquility was not fulfilled to the fullest extent, while it was easier to set new social standards for civilians’ development (e.g. expressive sexuality among women). Secure blessings of liberty Liberty infringement by Communism was confronted in America in terms of McCarthyism. Nevertheless, it was not real protection of human rights and liberties, but a false and artificial creation of democratic soci alism. These attempts to infringe American nation were hampered by Murrow’s criticism broadcasted in 1954 in â€Å"A Report on Sen. Joseph R. McCarthy†. Therefore, the journalist debated over inconsistencies of MacCarthy’s speech and his actions that endanger real democracy in America. Another example of the State’s reached goal of â€Å"Secure Blessing of Liberty† can be illustrated by events taking place in America in 1964 when the Freedom Vote, SNCC sent volunteers into Mississippi to promote more freedoms during voting. In the result, three black workers were lynched. Nevertheless, attempts of fighters for the real democracy resulted in the blacks’ participation in the political Democratic Party and ensured other ethnic minorities of America in their rights for freedom and liberties. To form a more perfect union The implementation of this goal can be illustrated by the increase of the civic responsibility. A unity of American nation was growing in the process of public demonstrations while opposing to the war in Vietnam, during protests against environmental pollution. Public participation in the social life of America flourished under the guidance of Martin Luther King. The highest expressivity that public participation reached was during the Million Man March in 1963 March in Washington. Nevertheless, these initiatives were not realized to the fullest extent. Though theoretical underpinnings of racial equality in America were well-developed, they were not completely realized in practice. Therefore, the governmental attempt to realize the goal of a more perfect union creation has not been completely embodied. Till nowadays the American government works at perfection of conditions for people in the name of the common perfect state. Conclusion The goals set in the Preamble of the US Constitution have been partially brought to life. The nation’s participation in the historical events of America has been always marked by a common goal to reach freedom, independence and a real protection o

Comparison of Lip Prints, Palatal Rugae With Blood Groups

Comparison of Lip Prints, Palatal Rugae With Blood Groups Title of the article: Comparison of lip prints, Palatal rugae with blood groups in Karnataka and Kerala Population Abstract Background: In the literature there is no data for the study done to compare lip prints and palatal rugae with blood groups. Correlating lip prints and palatal rugae with blood groups may be valuable in forensic science in precise identification of an individual than by means of lip prints or palatal rugae only. The present study was done to establish the allocation of different lip print patterns and palatal rugae among the subjects having diverse ABO and Rh blood groups in Karnataka and Kerala Population. Materials and Methods: The sample comprised a total of 100 subjects, which included 50 Kerala and 50 Manipuri subjects in the age group of 17-21 years. All the individuals’ lip prints, palatal rugae and blood groups were studied. Statistical comparison between the groups was done by Chi-square test or Fisher’s exact test for small samples. Results: Type 2 was found to be the predominant lip print pattern (45%) in both the populations. The major rugae shape in both the populations was wavy pattern and less commonly curved and straight. Left side of the palate showed relatively more number of rugae. Blood group A showed highest Type 3 lip print, B showed Type 2 pattern, AB showed Type 1 and Type 3 patterns and O showed Type 2 patterns. In Blood group A, curved palatal rugae were predominant whereas in blood group B, AB and O wavy patterns were predominant. Conclusion: In the present study it is noted that there is no association between lip prints and blood groups. However comparison of palatal rugae with blood groups showed a statistically significant difference. Thus our present showed a correlation between palatal rugae and blood groups. Key words: Blood groups, Kerala Population, Lip prints, palatal rugae, , manipuri Population. Introduction It is based on scientific principles, largely involving dental records, fingerprints and DNA comparisons. At times, it becomes essential to apply slighter known and remarkable techniques like cheiloscopy and palatoscopy. Lip prints and palatal rugae patterns are found to be unique to an individual and therefore embrace the possibility for identification.1-3 Lip prints are common lines, fissures in the appearance of wrinkles and grooves seen in the zone of transition of lip in the middle of the inner labial mucosa and outer skin. Cheiloscopy (from the Greek: cheilos -‘lips’ and skopein ‘to see’) is the given name to the lip pattern studies.3 It is probable to identify that lip print patterns form as before sixth week of uterine life. Since that instant on, the lip patterns hardly ever modify, resisting many afflictions and therefore lip prints assist as a means in human identification. Yasuo Tsuchihashi considered the lip prints of 757 males and 607 females of Japanese subjects and classified them into six types based on shape and way of the grooves.1, 4 Palatal rugae, in adding together are unique to an individual, protected from trauma by their internal location in the head. Once shaped, rugae do not go through any changes with the exception of length, due to regular growth, enduring in the same arrangement right through the complete person’s life. Diseases, chemical violence or trauma do not appear to change the palatal rugae form.5 The purpose of palatal rugae patterns intended for personal recognition was foremost suggested by Harrison Allen in 1889. Thomas and Kotze in 1983 detailed the various patterns of palatal rugae and classified based on the shape, unification, direction, and length.6 In the literature there is no data for the study finished to compare lip prints and palatal rugae with blood groups. Correlating lip prints and palatal rugae with blood groups may be valuable in forensic science in precise identification of an individual than by means of lip prints or palatal rugae only. The present study was done to establish the allocation of different lip print patterns and palatal rugae among the subjects having diverse ABO and Rh blood groups in Karnataka and Kerala Population. In our study we have also searched for the predominant lip print type and palatal rugae patterns among the persons from Karnataka and Kerala states in India. Material and Methods Subjects The total sample consisted of 100 BDS students studying in Navodaya Dental College and Hospital, Raichur, Karnataka, involving of 50 subjects (25 male and 25 female) from Karnataka and 50 Kerala subjects (25 male and 25 female), in the age group ranging between 17-21 years. Approval of all the individuals and ethical clearance was also obtained to conduct the study. Each individual subject lip prints, palatal rugae and blood groups were studied. Recording the lip prints Lips free from some pathology, having extremely normal transition zone linking the mucosa and the skin were incorporated in the study. Lips of the subjects were cleaned and lipstick was applied all over the lips. Lip ‘impressions’ were traced in the usual rest place of the lips by applying a ribbon of cellophane tape which is 10cm long. The cellophane strip was consequently fixed on to the white chart paper for everlasting documentation and then the recorded lip prints be visualized with a magnifying lens (Figure 1). Examination of the lip prints Each individual’s lips were divided into 4 compartments and seen for the type of lip print in each compartment (Figure 2). Recording the palatal rugae Alginate impressions of only maxillary arch was prepared and poured by means of dental stone. A dental plaster base was prepared and casts were conserved for analysis. The rugae patterns were traced on these casts using a sharp graphite pencil below sufficient light. The palatal rugae patterns were subsequently explored on these casts with the facility of magnifying lens (Figure 3, 4). Recording the blood groups Each subjects blood groups were evaluated by inserting a drop of blood on the slide furthermore treated by means of anti-A and anti-B sera. Positive agglutination of the blood taking place on treating with anti-A is well thought to be blood group A, positive reaction with anti-B is deliberated as blood group B, if no agglutination is created subsequently the blood group is O and if agglutination is observed with both anti-sera at that time blood group AB is considered. In the same way, positive agglutination response with Rh antigen is well thought to be Rh positive or else as Rh negative. Statistical analysis The data was analyzed for percentage proportions and compared. Statistical comparison between the groups was done by Chi-square test or Fisher’s exact test for small samples. A p-value less than 0.05 were considered as significant. Data was analyzed by using software SPSS version 16.0 Results Lip prints Taken as a whole, not even one individual had a single kind of lip prints in all the compartments and no individual had an alike lip print patterns. When sex was assessed in both the populations combined, males demonstrated principally Type 3 lip print pattern (43%) whereas, females showed principally Type 2 (49%). Comparison of all lip print patterns among males and females using the chi-square test showed no statistically significant difference (Table 1). In the Karnataka population, Type 2 lip print pattern was set up to be largest (48%), followed by Type 3 (40%), Type 1 (8%) and Type 5 (4%). Type 1’ and Type 4 patterns were zero in Karnataka population. In Kerala population, Type 2 lip print pattern was established to be predominant (42%), followed by Type 3 (28%), Type 1 (26%) and Type 4 Type 5 (2%) (Table 2). When the overall patterns were evaluated in the entire study subjects (in both Karnataka and Kerala), Type 2 was found to be the majority of all lip print patterns having 45% in contrast to additional types of lip print patterns. The Chi-square test association of all lip print patterns between Karnataka and Kerala population revealed no significant differences except for Type 1 pattern (Tables 2). Palatal rugae The largest rugae shape in all populations was wavy pattern and smallest being curved and straight. However, wavy and curved patterns were predominant in Karnataka compared to Kerala population and whereas straight was slightly more in Kerala population. When unification of rugae was analyzed, diverging type of rugae pattern was predominant in both the populations. However no statistical significant difference was observed. On observing the direction of rugae, forwardly directed rugae were predominant than backwardly directed rugae in both the populations. Inaddition, forwardly directed rugae were more in Karnataka population than Kerala, whereas backwardly directed rugae were more in Kerala population than Karnataka. In Karnataka population left side of the palate demonstrated relatively extra number of rugae apart from right side, whereas in Kerala, right side of the palate showed more number of rugae (Table 3). Blood groups and Rh system Majority of the subjects (44%) in Karnataka population belonged to blood group A; followed by blood group O (34%), B (16%) and AB (6%). Whereas frequency of blood group O (50%) was higher in Kerala population followed by blood group B (34%), A (10%) and AB (6%). In Karnataka population 98% of subjects had Rh-positive factor and only 2% of cases belonged to Rh-negative factor. In Kerala population, 90% of subjects had Rh-positive factor. Comparison of all blood groups between both the populations showed a statistical significant difference only for A and B groups. Inaddition, there was no significant difference observed for Rh-positive and negative factor between both the populations (Table 4). Comparison of Lip prints and palatal rugae in relation to all blood groups Among Blood group A highest was Type 3 lip print pattern (44%), blood group B showed highest Type 2 pattern (48%), blood group AB showed highest Type 1 (50%) and Type 3 (50%) patterns and blood Group O showed highest Type 2 (55%) patterns. On statistical comparison between different lip prints in all the blood groups, no significant difference was observed. In Blood group A, curved palatal rugae (49%) were predominant whereas in blood group B, AB and O wavy patterns were predominant and was also statistically significant (P=0.02) (Table 5). Discussion In forensic identification, the mouth allows for countless possibilities. Compilation of data from bite marks, lip prints and teeth in crime scenes such as murder and rape be capable of playing a major role in criminal investigations. Rarely, noticeable or latent lip prints are established at a crime scene which can be recorded and contrasted with the prints of assumed persons and the donor is able to be recognized. The importance of cheiloscopy is associated to the information that lip prints are genetic, developed at 6th month of uterine life, are permanent, unchangeable after death also, and unique to an individual.2 In the literature, a number of researchers have worked expansively on lip prints, palatal rugae and blood individually for sex and population identification. In addition, there are no studies that compared lip print and palatal rugae with blood groups between two populations. Hence, in the present study an attempt is been made to contrast the lip print patterns and palatal rugae with blood groups in subjects from two different parts of India (i.e. Karnataka and Kerala). In the present study the majority lip pattern seen in males was type 3, and in females it was type 2. This was in accordance with Gondivkar et al.11 When the overall patterns were evaluated among in the entire study subjects, Type 2 was found to be the majority lip print pattern having 45% when compared to additional types of lip print patterns. These results were in accordance with Telagi et al.12, Patel et al.13 and Rastogi et al.2 Within the Karnataka population, Type 2 lip print pattern was established to be largest, followed by Type 3, Type 1 and Type 5. This was in contrast to the study done by Vahanwalla and Parekh in Mumbai, in which they found that type I was predominant.14 Verghese et al. has conducted a study of cheiloscopy in south Karnataka districts in India and showed that type 4 pattern was predominant in Karnataka population, in contrast to our study.1 Within Kerala population, Type 2 lip print pattern was established to be largest, followed by Type 3, Type 1 and Type 4 5. In contrast to our study, According to Verghese et al. Type 4 to be major in both the genders in Kerala population.15 Further, in our study, statistical association of all lip print patterns among Karnataka and Kerala population revealed no significant differences except for Type 1 pattern. The major rugae shape in both the populations was wavy pattern and less commonly curved and straight and which is in with Kapali et al.16 However, in our study wavy and curved patterns were predominant in Karnataka compared to Kerala population. Straight was slightly more in Kerala population than Karnataka population. In addition, in the present study, when unification of rugae was analyzed, diverging type of rugae pattern was predominant in both the populations. On observing the direction of rugae, forwardly directed rugae were predominant than backwardly directed rugae in both the populations. However, forwardly directed rugae were more in Karnataka population than Kerala, whereas backwardly directed rugae were more in Kerala population than Karnataka. When evaluated for the number of palatal rugae in Karnataka and Kerala population left side of the palate showed relatively more number of rugae. This interpretation was similar to Dhoke and Usato et al. who as well reported with the intention that right side of the palate had smaller number of rugae than the left side. This may be owed to the observable fact of regressive advancement, dominating the right side of the palate.10 Further in our study statistical analysis showed that there was no difference found in the total number of rugae seen for shape, unification, direction and side of the palate between the two populations. In the present study the predominant blood group among all the subjects was blood group O. These findings were similar to the results obtained by Bharadwaja et al.17, Rastogi et al.18. Majority of the subjects in Karnataka population belonged to blood group A, whereas the frequency of blood group O was higher in Kerala population. 98% of subjects in the Karnataka population had Rh-positive factor and 90% of Kerala population had Rh-positive factor. Comparison of all blood groups between both the populations showed a statistical significant difference only for A and B groups. Inaddition, there was no significant difference observed for Rh-positive and negative factor between both the populations. Frequency of type 3 lip print pattern was more in Blood group A. Distribution of Type 2 lip print pattern was highest blood group B and O. Further type 1 and type 3 were predominant in blood group AB. When comparison between different lip prints in all the blood groups was done, no statistical significant difference was observed. These results coordinated with earlier studies done by Telagi et al.12 Sandhu et al.19 and Verma et al.20 Coming to the palatal rugae distribution, curved rugae were predominant in Blood group A, whereas in blood group B, AB and O, wavy patterns were predominant. Further on comparison of different rugae patterns among different blood groups showed a statistically significant difference. Conclusion In the present study it is noted that there is no association between lip prints and blood groups. However comparison of palatal rugae with blood groups showed a statistically significant difference. Thus our present showed a correlation between palatal rugae and blood groups. Further there are no studies available on palatal rugae comparison with blood group in English language literature search. Thus our study remains the first study to compare both lip prints and palatal rugae with blood groups.

Wall Street Crash of October 1929 Essay -- Great Depression Economics

Wall Street Crash of October 1929 The roaring twenties saw a great deal of prosperity in the United States economy. Everything seemed to be going well as stock prices continued to rise at incredible rates and everyone in the market was becoming rich. Two new industries: the automotive industry, and the radio industry were the driving forces of this economic boom. These industries were helping to create a new type of market that no one had ever seen in history. With the market continuously increasing and with no foreseeable end, many individuals were entering the market because they saw the market as a sure fire way to get rich quickly. The rising prices of stocks and the large increases in trading created the speculative market that would eventually crash. On Monday, October 28, 1929, New York seemed to be the primary focus of the entire world. During that week in October, the bottom of the New York stock market fell out, an event that would lead the world into the greatest depression it has ever seen to date . Many individuals including those in the Federal Reserve Board saw the crash as a healthy thing that would bring all speculative trading to an end, and bring stock prices down to â€Å"realistic† levels. Following the crash the Fed followed a contractionary policy, which does not encourage expansion. Although that type of policy did need to be implemented prior to the crash, the decision to implement contractionary policy after the crash at best can be considered a questionable decision. The unstable financial situation of the United States that lead to the great crash can be attributed to the lack of leadership and action of the Federal Reserve in the financial world during the roaring twenties. After the end... ...31 Oct. 1929 9. â€Å"Stocks Up Again on Flood of Buying; Discount Rate Cut Here and in London; Back to Normal, Reserve Board Finds.† The New York Times 1 Nov. 1929 10. â€Å"Brokers See End of Stock Hysteria.† The New York Times 1 Nov. 1929 11. Herbert Hoover, The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover (New York: Macmillan, 1952) 12. L. V. Chandler, Benjamin Strong, Central Banker (Washington DC: Brookings Institute, 1958) 13. â€Å"Behind the scenes with the Federal Reserve Board,† World’s Work (June 1929) 14. Excerpts from the Hamlin Diary - http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=amrlm&fileName=mn02page.db&recNum=0&itemLink=r?ammem/cool:@field(DOCID+@lit(mn023))%23mn02003&linkText=1 15. Appendix 1: can be found at www.duke.edu/~wem3/ click on work stuff then under HST104 16. Appendix 2: can be found at www.duke.edu/~wem3/ click on work stuff then under HST104 Wall Street Crash of October 1929 Essay -- Great Depression Economics Wall Street Crash of October 1929 The roaring twenties saw a great deal of prosperity in the United States economy. Everything seemed to be going well as stock prices continued to rise at incredible rates and everyone in the market was becoming rich. Two new industries: the automotive industry, and the radio industry were the driving forces of this economic boom. These industries were helping to create a new type of market that no one had ever seen in history. With the market continuously increasing and with no foreseeable end, many individuals were entering the market because they saw the market as a sure fire way to get rich quickly. The rising prices of stocks and the large increases in trading created the speculative market that would eventually crash. On Monday, October 28, 1929, New York seemed to be the primary focus of the entire world. During that week in October, the bottom of the New York stock market fell out, an event that would lead the world into the greatest depression it has ever seen to date . Many individuals including those in the Federal Reserve Board saw the crash as a healthy thing that would bring all speculative trading to an end, and bring stock prices down to â€Å"realistic† levels. Following the crash the Fed followed a contractionary policy, which does not encourage expansion. Although that type of policy did need to be implemented prior to the crash, the decision to implement contractionary policy after the crash at best can be considered a questionable decision. The unstable financial situation of the United States that lead to the great crash can be attributed to the lack of leadership and action of the Federal Reserve in the financial world during the roaring twenties. After the end... ...31 Oct. 1929 9. â€Å"Stocks Up Again on Flood of Buying; Discount Rate Cut Here and in London; Back to Normal, Reserve Board Finds.† The New York Times 1 Nov. 1929 10. â€Å"Brokers See End of Stock Hysteria.† The New York Times 1 Nov. 1929 11. Herbert Hoover, The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover (New York: Macmillan, 1952) 12. L. V. Chandler, Benjamin Strong, Central Banker (Washington DC: Brookings Institute, 1958) 13. â€Å"Behind the scenes with the Federal Reserve Board,† World’s Work (June 1929) 14. Excerpts from the Hamlin Diary - http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=amrlm&fileName=mn02page.db&recNum=0&itemLink=r?ammem/cool:@field(DOCID+@lit(mn023))%23mn02003&linkText=1 15. Appendix 1: can be found at www.duke.edu/~wem3/ click on work stuff then under HST104 16. Appendix 2: can be found at www.duke.edu/~wem3/ click on work stuff then under HST104

Battle Of The Bulge

Since the time that war, military and military men have existed, there has also existed a parallel class of strategist, philosophers, military, practitioners, philosophers and historians who have invested their lifetime of effort comprehending the complexities of warfare.These efforts have produced both long, complicated documents that have looked in entire social and economic aspects associated with warfare, and also condensed records and quick lessons into strategy of war that practitioners of the military art could use to guide the conduct of warfare (Johnsen et al.1995). The efforts to chronicle war details and related documents is also taken in earnest effort by every nation, in order to create a perspective on war and establish a set of workable principles that can be followed in the course of any armed struggle. However, mere compilation and study of principles would certainly account as a very limited effort in evolving a contemporary and updated approach towards warfare.Whil e the principles may have been thoroughly scrutinized at the tactical and operational levels of warfare, their applicability and suitability at the practical level of implementation may be less than exhaustive. For examples, the principle and lessons of war from Napoleonic warfare, although revealing from the strategic point of view, may have little operational significance from the standpoint of 20th century techniques and necessities (Reid, 1993).It is important therefore for these principles to apply at the strategic level of war under the conditions of rapid technological change, and remain in accordance of military needs of the time. Contrary to ocular perception that associates war as purely a military enterprise, one that is conducted entirely on battlefields, the reality is that war is an intellectual accomplishment and creative exercise, and hence many of its finer details are perfected at the strategic board and discussion rooms.The intellectual framework required to accom plish this complex procedure requires a theoretical structure that is provided by Principle of war (Johnsen et al. 1995). Meanwhile, theories and principles are just one of the side of a full-fledged war, as they have their own limits and it’s the balanced of combination of principles along with ability to transform them in practice that ensures victories in armed engagements.It is also important to remember that war strategies and principles applied in a particular battle essentially bear the stamp of their time. Although they may appear out of place, or seem overtly simple from vantage point of time, they reflect the best wisdom and experience of the age (Murdock, 2002). It is from this understanding and insight that this paper looks into the important Battle of Bulge, fought between German and US forces towards end of the Second World War and that is universally recognized as the bloodiest battle faced by US in the War.Modern Principles of War The two world events that hav e profoundly affected war strategies and principles have been the First and Second World War. The scale and range of military strategy and operations seen in each of the war had been hitherto unprecedented, and with introduction of motorized units, battletanks and aircrafts, the very core of military strategy changed for forever (Johnsen et al. 1995).The lead military thinkers and strategists of the day were forced to undergo a total revision of their approach towards conducting battles that no longer comprised of charging cavalrymen and open field combat, and brought in their consideration the role of bombers and fighter aircrafts- such modern tools of warfare that had never been used by any army through the course of human history (Reid, 1993).However, though acutely aware of the fact that pre-World War I operational strategies and principles of battles no longer hold any applicability or relevance for modern context, the strategists included some cardinal ethics in revising and p reparing the new principles of war. Some of the outstanding principles of war, as promulgated from time to time by lead military thinkers and strategists have been Originality, Economy of Force, Strategy of Indirect Approach, Objective, Offensive, Military Security, Concentration, and Co-Operation (Reid, 1993; Murdock, 2002).The first among these was Originality. By its very definition, originality does not conform to any specified set of rules, procedures or antecedent governing conduct of war. It is always a fresh take on situation, borne purely out of context of the battle. Military strategists attributes following characteristics to originality (Reid, 1993): 1. Originality is the product of an original mind. 2 An original idea or plan, by its definition, presents novel insights and its not an obvious one; further it can not be known in advance to originator themselves.Original ideas are likely to be unconventional and they happen to be product of an unorthodox approach. 3 Origin al approach and ideas generated will posses varying degree of originality and situation specific approach that may come with built in elements of context based improvisation and ideas. However, the ability to conceive original ideas does not translate to ability of selecting the most appropriate course of action. 4 Originality comes from active imagination. 5. Every one participating in an action is capable of coming out with original ideas.There are several noted contributions of originality in military field that are historically famous and have been marked as legend. The use of elephants by Hannibal, the retreat plot deployed by Normans at the battle of Hastings, and the spectacular success achieved by German Blitzkrieg are all too famous and taught across all the military schools in world (Reid, 1993). Surprise, as it can be noted, formed the crux of the originality and with further maturation of military doctrine, surprise and initial advance emerged as separate principles of w ar that were followed to the hilt by many military leaders.The remarkable successes of Germany in the initial period of the Second World War and in the Operation Barbarossa against Russia and the deadly Japanese strike at Pearl Harbor were all result of a military strategy strictly woven around the cardinal principle of surprise and initial advance(Reid, 1993). Despite the obvious advantage of originality and the elements of surprise, flexibility and initiative introduced by it, the stress on originality alone do not form the full crux of war principles.Economy of Force: Economy of Force, as a military principle was a central theme of British Military Doctrine post World War I. Economy of Force is traditionally defined as a commander’s ability to identify the area to concentrate the main thrust of the force for decisive result corollary of concentration of force (Murdock, 2002). It is well recognized that it impossible to be strong everywhere and if decisive victory is to be achieved then it is imperative that strength is directed at the critical time and place, while ensuring that reduce the wasteful expenditure of effort.It also involves a commander’s ability to take calculated risk, planning for balanced development and providential deployment of available resources (Murdock, 2002). Strategy of Indirect Approach: Strategy of Indirect Approach is aimed at minimizing blood loss at battlefronts, both in friendly and enemy’s camp. Developed as opposite to war of attrition, it is a purely philosophical approach that is aims to strike strategically at enemy’s point of weakness instead of the main force. The areas identified for this purpose are lines of supply, lines of communication, factory and industrial installations and power centers (Murdock, 2002).Strategic bombing against these vulnerable but highly sensitive channels is likely to effectively cripple enemy’s ability to conduct warfare, leading to capitulation by its main body with minimum of blood loss. Battle of Bulge The Battle of Bulge, known in Army circles as Battle of Ardennes, resulted from German offensive in the last phase of the World War II and it took place from 16 December 1944 to 25 January 1945. After the Normandy Landing of 6th June, 1944, Allied forces had liberated almost whole of the Europe from Nazi occupation and cornered German forces to their own territories (Astor, 1999).Allied Forces had taken the strategic position in the rough terrains of Ardennes, that occupied areas of Belgium and France. Although the forests and hills of the region made it an apparently impregnable region, the history defied this notion as the region constituted the main path taken by German forces in both 1st and 2nd World War to mount surprise attack on Belgium and France (Astor, 1999). The region had already seen a major confrontation in the beginning of Second World War when German forces launched their blitzkrieg on France using the same path.Now, with tides of battle turned, Allied forces had parked themselves in the same region, preparing to use it against launching their major offensive against German mainland. The emotions in Allied Armies ran high at this juncture. They had successfully liberated almost all of the Western Europe from Nazi occupation and at the beginning of December, 1944 they were standing at the threshold of the door of Nazi regime, the cause of momentous suffering and unparalleled loss of life for millions of people.The heavy Nazi defeat in USSR, resulting in almost total decimation of over half a million Nazi force had further created a positive mood of victory. It was not surprising that many of the army men and military officers were looking forward to end of War by 1st January, 1945. However, hopes of a quick victory took a setback as US intelligence gathered rumors mentioning a massive German counter attack. Prisoners captured and deserters from German army mentioned of large scale congregation o f German military machine and personnel.By 9th December, there were unconfirmed reports in Allied camps of an impending German maneuver, but there was hardly any decisive or concrete information available on which to base the response. For a short time the Army generals believed the military amassment to be of defensive in nature, aimed at protecting German borders (Astor, 1999). Meanwhile, around 12th of December, in several cases of interrogation of bordering civilians, Allied soldiers learned of heavy movement of military equipments as well as arrival of hardcore Nazi troops –Wafen SS from Italy (Astor, 1999).The reports created a scene of impending offensive assault. However, the report took more than a day in making its way to Army headquarters. As a matter of fact, riding on their feats of victory over Nazi Army in recent battles, American army had dangerously dropped its guard and slumbered in a zone of complacency. German spies reported that American guards manned the ir post for an hour after dark and then returned to base to emerge at the dawn.This was in total disregard to the alert and caution required at the time of ongoing war situation. As confirmed by American commander of 106 division, before bulge, they were a nine to five army in Ardennes. The Nazi Ardennes offensive was prepared by Hitler himself and it was based on standard German strategy of achieving maximum damage through surprise. Towards this purpose, German forces maintained total radio silence, putting Allied forces completely in dark on the movements and intentions of their enemies.While Allied armies rested through first half of December, German panzer divisions, supported by large number of infantry troops were stealthily filtering through forests of Ardennes to catch Americans unprepared and off guard (Astor, 1999). Germany had indeed the plan well laid out for they had deliberately selected the most vulnerable section of American division for the first salvo. German batte ries opened fire on the early morning of 16th December, 1945. The sixth panzer division showered 99th division with heavy mortars and shells, severely destroying Allied communication lines (Astor, 1999).The Fifth Panzer division, supported by Seventh Army, tore into Allied forces, virtually annihilating the opposition out of way. The attack was so intense that it literally cut down large number of trees surrounding the Allied camps, and falling tree trunks became another mortal hazard for the soldiers scrambling for cover and their life. Allied forces soon galvanized their response and within an hour of initiating attack, the 277th division found itself facing a barrage of shots and ammunition from Allied forces, and especially American soldiers.In fact at many places German forces suffered heavy casualty. However, German preparations were fairly elaborate and troops stationed near Sauer River and Sauer town witnessed the amazing scene of searchlights reflected through low hanging c louds, illuminating long stretches of path for German forces while providing little guidance to Allied troops of the location or position of their formidable adversaries (Astor, 1999). The adversaries indeed proved too formidable and they incessantly and mercilessly poured down heavy shells, bombs and fire on a force caught completely off balance.The impact of the German affront forced American divisions to move back; they hoped to assemble at a safe place and then mount an effective counter strike. But the rapidly advancing tanks units of German Army stripped the retreating American troops of any assemblage point inflicting waves after waves of massive casualty. To support the army motorized units, approximately thousand planes of Luftwaffe hovered over the scene, dropping paratroopers, reconnaissance and when the opportunity presented, strike the visible American targets.The swift German attack had also been successful in creating wedge between First and Third Army, and separated British forces from American units. The German armies continued their rampant attack for three full days, causing heavy casualties on Allied forces. Meanwhile, the Allied generals, under leadership of General Eisenhower and command of General Patton were already planning counteroffensive against German divisions. Eisenhower and the Allied command well understood the fact that German were counting on their success upon same speed and thrust that had achieved in the initial years of wars (Astor, 1999).However, Ardennes presented a different topography that was too rough and too uneven for quick, breezy movements. Further, the time of year being December, the entire area was covered with snow and it considerably slowed down German Operations. The principle aim of advancing German army was to cross the Meuse River, using the cover of surprise and stealth for their infantry to cut through Allied lines. Behind them Panzer divisions would coast easily, mowing down remaining resistance and cross the River.Once across the river, they would turn and head for the crucial port of Antwerp that they aimed to capture in order to cut off Allied supplies and force them to capitulation. However, German forces, in all their haste to advance, could not discount the natural adversities of fog, snow, inclement weather and hostile terrain. The Allied armies used these natural disadvantages well against advancing German battalions to halt them in their track and in the process cause severe damage to their resources. The Allied high command also sent quick reinforcement to flanks under pressure of heavy enemy fire thereby negating the German success.The resolute stand by Allied armies and their refusal to submit to overwhelming German armor virtually stalled the German advances (Astor, 1999). By December 18, from the strategy point of view the German High Command had known that their operation was destined towards failure. If they continued to pursue it, it was done with the hope to i nflict heavy damage on allied force and seize the initiative from them. The German fought desperately more because they knew that Antwerp presented them their only chance of survival, however slim it may be. In defense lay their total ruin (Astor, 1999; Smith, 1995)).However, as US generals later estimated, Germany faced total ruin in either of the situation. It was essentially stripped of the substance to reverse balance of power in Europe. With Allied forces pressing it from the West, and Russian forces blowing it from East, the German defeat had become a certainty that even most optimistic of Nazi generals knew. If anything, the battle of Bulge brought their ruin sooner than later. By 20th of December, Allied generals had taken complete stock of the situation and prepared their counter plan with the aim to completely neutralize the Nazi striking potential (Smith, 1995;Cooper, 1998).By 22nd of December, Allied airplanes, comprising of bombers and fighters, started to wreck havoc o n German armored units. Although Luftwaffe tried to counter the Allied airplanes, but it was outnumbered and beaten out of contest. By December 24, Allied bombing of German rail movements, their communication line, their armored divisions and their supply lines created a condition of virtual siege for German army, that starved in absence of supplies, ammunition and fuel (Smith, 1995). Nazi units were severely short of fuel, that had, for all the practical purpose, rendered them cripple and worthless from battle point of view (Smith, 1995).From Christmas of 1944, the definitive allied ground counterstrike began against defeated and retreating German armies. German encirclement of town of Bastogne was broken down by January 3 and by January 10 the two division of advancing Allied forces from two directions were at a distance of mere 10 km from each other, allowing the Nazi forces a very narrow corridor to ensure their escape (Smith, 1995). It had taken exactly a month to turn German p osition into a hopeless one, from where almost no escape was possible. By January 16 the combined allied forces were rapidly closing down on them.The severe damages suffered by Nazi forces that included 1,20,000 casualties (wounded and dead), loss of 600 tanks, 1600 planes, complete disruption of their communication lines and exhaustion of their fuel supply, had irrevocably broke their back. The offensive came to an end by January 25, resulting in an another major and decisive allied victory (Smith, 1995). Reference Cooper, B. Y. 1998. Death Traps: The Survival of an American Armored Division in World War II. Presidio Press, Astor, G. 1999. The Greatest War: Americans in Combat, 1941-1945; Presidio Press.Smith, W. B. 1995. Eisenhower's Six Great Decisions: Europe, 1944-1945; Longmans, Green. Houston, D. E. 1995. Hell on Wheels: The 2d Armored Division;; Presidio Press, 1995 Johnsen, W. T. , Johnson, D. V. , Kievit, J. O, Lovelace Jr. D. C. Metz, S. 1995. The Principles of War in the 21st Century: Strategic Considerations; Strategic Studies Institute, 1995 Reid, B. R. 1993. The Science of War: Back to First Principles. Routledge, Murdock, P. 2002. Principles of War on the Network-Centric Battlefield: Mass and Economy of Force; Parameters, Vol. 32, 2002

APPENDIX J Smog Check Essay Example

APPENDIX J Smog Check Essay Example APPENDIX J Smog Check Paper APPENDIX J Smog Check Paper OBD II Reference (Testability Issues) Appendix J provides information and test instructions about known OBD II functional test difficulties. Technicians must familiarize themselves with the information contained in this Appendix and follow the specified test instructions when conducting a Smog Check inspection on any vehicle listed. Please watch for Appendix J updates on the Smog Check website or via ET Blasts. If other problems or solutions arise concerning the testing of OBD II vehicles, BAR will provide updated information advising technicians how to test the affected vehicles. Table 1 la lists known OBD II testability issues. Table 2 lists CAN equipped vehicles that currently cannot be OBD II tested. The EIS should automatically bypass the OBD II test for CAN equipped vehicles. However, if the EIS prompts for an OBD II test, bypass the test by answering No to the OBD II functional test prompt. Unless otherwise instructed by BAR, do not answer No to bypass the OBD II functional test for any other OBD II equipped vehicles. In addition to the vehicles listed in Table 2, all vehicles one model-year old and newer are excepted from the OBD II functional test. With each new calendar year, the xceptions change accordingly. For example: In 2007, all 2006 modelyear and newer vehicles are excepted from the OBD II functional test. In 2008, the 2006 model-year vehicles are subject to the OBD II test and the exceptions change to 2007 model-year and newer. Note: Once the BAR-97 EIS incorporates CAN communication protocol, these vehicles will become testable. To ensure that any special test processes are appropriately applied, always select vehicle information (make, model, engine size, etc. ) from the BAR-97 inspection menus. Rev 7 (112007) Smog Check Inspection Manual Appendix] TABLE 1 -OBD II Testability Issues Make Volkswagen Model Year 19962002 All models with non-OEM stereos Problem Action If the OEM stereo has been replaced with an aftermarket stereo, these vehicles may not communicate with the analyzer and/or OBD code scanner and may cause severe damage to the analyzer/scanner. For more information, see Technical service bulletin 0203 dated June 10, 2002. BAR recommends that you check with your analyzer/scan tool manufacturer to determine whether or not your analyzer/scan tool has complete current/voltage override protection. Override protection will protect the test equipment in cases where aftermarket installations cause over current onditions. BARS June 22, 2002 ET Blast provides a method of checking for high voltage conditions using a test light. An alternative is to send all 96-newer M/Audis with non-OEM radio installations to a WWAudi dealership for verification of proper OBD function. 1996 Cirrus, Concorde, LHS, Sebring, Sebring Convertible All monitors reset to incomplete upon every ignition key-off. Dodge Avenger, Intrepid, Stratus, Neon ignition key-off Eagle Talon, Vision Determine if Recall Campaign #678 (9/96) has been performed; if not, refer to dealer. TSB 18-005-01 applies to noncalifornia certified vehicles, and may be erformed at no cost, even if warranty is expired. Determine if Recall Campaign #678 (9/96) has been performed; if not, refer to dealer. certified vehicles, and may be performed at no cost, even if warranty is expired. Hyundai 2002 Sonata Readiness monitors are difficult to complete. Must successfully complete drive cycle TWO times. 003 Tiburon Will not communicate with generic OBD II test equipment. A manufacturer recall is in effect; recall campaign #057 and Hyundai TSB #0301-003-01. Refer to dealership for recall. All Models The catalyst and evaporative monitors are difficult to set to complete. Nissan provides recommended drive cycles (drive patterns). See Nissan Technical service Bulletin #NTB98-018, February 18, 1998. C220, E320, C280, S320, SL320 Th e MIL illuminates whenever a scan tool is connected to the DLC. Trouble codes are OBD II connector is used as an RPM source during the Smog Check, the MIL will illuminate. Do not connect the OBD II connector until the analyzer prompts for the OBD II functional test. Use the conventional contact or non-contact method to obtain an rpm signal. Infiniti MercedesBenz Hyundai TSB #02-36-030 applies. Hyundai TSB information at: Table 1 continued on next page Mercedes- Benz Mitsubishi 20012003 All models No communication with some snap-on as. Snap-On produces a revised chip that enables communication. If your Snap-On EIS does not use the revised chip, do not inspect these vehicles; they will NOT communicate. Refer the motorist to another station for inspection. 19982001 Montero, Montero Sport, Diamante, 3000GT, Mirage, Galant, Expo,Expo LRV, and Eclipse models (except 2. 0L nonturbo 420A engine models) Some monitors are difficult to set to complete. Mitsubishi provides recommended drive cycles in its service. See service manual for 1998-2001 drive cycles. Nissan Plymouth Breeze Neon Saab 19961998 900 (82341 with Motronic 4. 1) All monitors are difficult to set to complete. Toyota 1997 Tercel, Paseo The evaporative monitor will never set to complete. Volkswagen and Audi stereo, these vehicles may not communicate with OBD code scanners and may cause severe damage to code scanning tools. For more information, see Technical service bulletin 02-03 dated June 10, 2002. 3 Nissan provides recommended drive cycles (drive patterns) in its service information to assist technicians to operate monitors. See Nissan Technical Service Bulletin #NTB98-018c, January 3, 2002. A manufacturer recall is in effect. Verify recall has been performed. If not, refer to dealer for the recall. Saab Service Instruction No. 48 describes the correct drive cycle for completion of the monitors. The Smog Check OBD readiness criteria for this vehicle allow two monitors to be incomplete. criteria for these vehicles allow two monitors to be incomplete. BAR recommends that you check with your analyzer/scan tool manufacturer to determine current/voltage override protection. Override protection will protect the test equipment in cases where aftermarket conditions. BARS June 22, 2002 ET Blast provides a method of hecking for over current conditions using a test light. An alternative is to send all 96newer VW/Audis with non-OEM radio installations to a M/Audi dealership for verification of proper OBD function. End Table 1. la next page TABLE la The EIS Ignores Monitor Readiness Status BMW 750iL, 850Ci, 850CSi 12-cylinder engines. Stealth, Stealth RT 3. 0 1996-97 3000 GT, 3000 GT spider, 3000 GT VR-4, Diamante, Eclipse, Galant, Mighty Max, Mirage, Montero, Montero Sport 1. 5, 1. 8, 2. 0, 2. 4, 2. 5, 3. 0, 3. 5 Complete Inspection as prompted by the EIS. Subaru Impreza, Legacy, SVX 1. 8, 2. 2, 2. 5, 3. 3 Volvo 2. 5, 2. 9

The Voice of Rhetoric

The Voice of Rhetoric Free Online Research Papers The role of rhetoric in the greater scheme of thought is incalculable. Rhetoric, including language and discourse, has provided a stage for the development of thought. The interdisciplinary development and practice of rhetoric is intertwined with thought, as one facet cannot be deemed causal to the other. From its beginnings, rhetoric has expanded from fundamental claims of truth to discourse of theories of language and cultural ideology. Discussion on the limitations of language to reflect truth is the enduring debate concerning the role of rhetoric. This paper will focus on three thinkers who utilized and displayed the importance of rhetoric beyond its surfaced role in oratory and persuasion: Aristotle of the classical period, St. Augustine of the medieval period, and Karl Marx of the modern period. A survey of the cultural and historical context is important, for rhetoric is incited and is driven by motive. The origins of rhetoric are inherently fixed to the history and culture of ancient Greece, specifically to Greek drama. The theater emerges our of dance routines. Performed in Athenian Theater of Dionysus, the dances were in celebration of the Greek god Dionysus during the religious festival Dionysia. The performers, usually women, would perform the ritual dances while wearing masks in order to convey emotion. One of the performers would address the audience. At this point emotional expression in the monologue would be emphasized and delivered clearly and eloquently so as to appeal to the audience, and therefore persuade them to understand and empathize with the issues presented (Ley 4-6). The content of the theater was usually a philosophical discussion about issues and struggles that seem to be unsolvable, but nevertheless inherent in one’s life. The dialogue of the actors became more apparent in the plays. Monologues shined through as what was said became more important than what was played out. The focus of content changed to include major events of transformations of the Greek culture, like the Persian Wars, developing a more political appeal to the discourse of the plays. From this logographers emerged who standardized the narratives in terms of story line and meter, like Homer in his account of the Trojan War. Like a monologue of the theater, the logographer used the tools of the actor. He was convincing in presentation and followed the familiar tale with descriptive terms that followed the rhythm of the narrative. When this skill of presenting persuasively became needed, these logographers taught others the techniques of presentation. When democracy emerged, presenting issues persuasively became a highly successful skill. The ones who practiced and learned the skill of persuasion were usually the ones who could afford the education. These students of persuasion became known as rhetoricians. The Persian war incited the development of Greek democracy. The democratic political system allowed the city-states of Greece to unite and work as a political force. No longer was society determined by the whims of an individual monarch, the people now decided how society functioned. From this the peasants and the farmers gained more political power. Participants of the democratic process would vote on issues presented by speakers to the polis. If the speaker wanted agreement by the polis, he had to be convincing and appealing; hence the need for rhetoric. The monologue, perfected in the theater, becomes a useful tool. Like the actors, the speaker used tools of rhetoric. One was expected to present oneself as one with the best intent for the people and appeal to the audience’s logic and emotion, in order to be persuasive. It is no surprise that the use of rhetoric, speaking persuasively, became synonymous with politicians. More specifically, these political rhetoricians were known as Sophists, who prided themselves in their knowledge of the world and their skill of persuasion. The Sophists were at the forefront of debate in the political sphere. They used their skill and knowledge against their opponents in an effort to persuade the audience to vote policy in favor of their display. If they were persuasive enough, their intent of the debate would become policy. Some, like philosophers Plato and Socrates, regarded the Sophists with disdain and claimed the Sophists were manipulative in their language and selfish in their intent. The clash between Plato and the Sophists, and rhetoric in general, is more a debate over the notion of truth. Plato valued philosophy and rationality and regarded rhetoric as covering up the truth. The Sophists, on the other hand, believed in a more humanistic principle where the world should be judged within the context of the human condition. Gorgias made full use of these principles, applying them to the style and utility of rhetoric. He was known for his Asiatic, poetic style and use of figures of speech. For Sophists like Gorgias, they regarded â€Å"the world in which man moves as nothing but a set of more or less emotional convictions† (Ijsseling 27). Gorgias and the Sophists exploited the persuasive nature of speech to move listeners through emotional appeal. Rationality had no room in their world of chaos. Language, like the world, was chaotic. The world was perceived by the Sophists as nothing more than a series of images and emotional convictions. Language was reflecting that chaos through its illusionary nature. In Gorgias’ Encomium to Helen, he argued the acts of the mythical heroin were due to this form persuasion; therefore, she was not to blame. In his construct of speech, he wants to show the deceptive nature of language and the power of language, which by its use justifies deception: â€Å" Speech is a powerful lord that with the smallest and most invisible body accomplishes most god-like works†¦I shall show how this is so† (35). He wants to display, through his rhetoric, that language does not lead to truth. The limitation of language is a recurring theme in the development of rhetoric. Aristotle’s philosophy is aimed at establishing universal truths. His approach differed from Plato, who believed that universal truth was separate from particular truths and discussion of the particular is focused upon its attempt to be like the universal. Instead, Aristotle observed universal truths in the particular. The particulars, according to Aristotle, had an essence of universal. By categorizing the particular in relation to the universal, Aristotle is putting a language to being. The relation of the particular to the universal, as well as the universal’s relationship to the particular, says something of the meaning to that truths; supporting one another to uphold the truth that gives them both meaning. Aristotle’s syllogism puts language to this philosophy of logic. The syllogism works logically by establishing a relationship between two premises, (a universal and a particular). Finding this relationship is finding knowledge that is reinforced by the universal and particular, all giving meaning to one another. Aristotle then applies the syllogism to practical knowledge, like ethics. The categorical syllogism changes from to dialectical syllogism in order to apply logic to the practical knowledge, something that is useful for man in his daily life. The dialectical syllogism addresses problems like how one should act and live, and what policies should be done by the state so we can live a good life. In its form, it remained logical like the categorical syllogism and retained the same sense of dialogue, with two premises and a conclusion; however, the premises and conclusion was left to interpretation. The first premise stated a universal truth or premise of how one should live, the second was a particular situation in relation to the universal premise. Because the subject matter dealt with abstract concepts of morals, the syllogism treats them like concrete, universal ideas to make them manageable for argument. Aristotle applied this same scientific methodology to rhetoric. Rhetorical syllogism, or enthymeme, argued from the particular to the conclusion and suppressing the universal. The universal premise is presupposed in the mind of the audience and there is no need to state it. By assuming the universal principle in one’s speech, the speaker creates credibility in the particular in showing agreement in the truth of that universal premise. The relationship between the two, in the persuaded conclusion, fit logically within these two truths and is better accepted as truth by the audience. Rhetoric is not classified as knowledge, but is subject to Aristotle’s classification. According to Aristotle, rhetoric is the counterpart to dialectic and a device to find knowledge. Oratory was synonymous with rhetoric; however, rhetoric entailed larger scope of disciplines beyond the act of speech delivery Rhetoric is defined in Aristotle’s The Art of Rhetoric as â€Å"the facility of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion† which is â€Å"fully persuaded when a thing has been demonstrated† (15). The art of rhetoric includes a theory of persuasive communication â€Å"in the context of a genuinely philosophical conception of rhetoric† (15). Aristotle is offering more to the technique of persuasion, beyond the emotional appeal practiced by the Sophist, by implementing an appeal to logos, as well as ethos and pathos. Aristotle insists that simple persuasion is not the function of rhetoric. As rational beings, more than emotion drives man. Rhetoric serves a particular function in the quest for knowledge, as seen in rhetorical logic in the form of enthymeme. The persuasive quality comes from its use of logos, pathos, and ethos. The extent of their use is determined by the need and context of the rhetoric. These needs are categorized by Aristotle as forensic, epideictic and deliberative, each serving a purpose considering the topic: (1) Deliberative: political speeches arguing for the policy of the future by providing information to support the greater good of the policy (2) Forensic: legal speeches, moving the audience to pass judgment (3) Epideictic: ceremonial and celebratory speeches that provide the audience with pleasure The extent to which the proofs and appeals, (logos, ethos, pathos), are implemented are dependent of which form of rhetoric is being used. The genre of rhetoric used becomes important in the further development of thought. To what extent rhetoric is used and for what purpose determines the affect and success rhetoric has in persuasion. The Medieval and Renaissance period provided no development of rhetoric by way of the political structure of society. Before these periods, during the decline of the Roman Republic and appearance of the Roman Empire, there was no widespread use and advancement. Democracy fostered the art of persuasion as people had to be enticed to agree upon a perspective. In this new environment, the art of persuasion was for some time limited to flattery and scholastic use. There was no sense of rhetoric by the medieval period. Christianity, by that time, had influenced every facet of educated society. Classical works of rhetoric and philosophy were demeaned as pagan literature, called â€Å"the food of the devil† and was no longer considered relevant. However, â€Å"most educated Christians were trained in rhetoric and †¦ acquainted with classical literature, the style and content of which impressed many with its almost incomparable beauty† (Ijsseling 41). The devices and characteristic of rhetoric proved useful for the development and operation Christian ideology. St. Augustine was a distinguished rhetorician, known for his style and role in early Christianity. Also educated in the classics, Augustine saw â€Å"rhetorical technique in itself is neither good nor bad, but all depends on the use to which it is put†¦[and] regarded rhetoric as entirely neutral; it may be blessing or a curse, since only the aim determines its value† (Ijsseling 43). However, the style of Christian rhetoric â€Å"must be lucid, simple, objective, serious, and biblically inspired† (Ijsseling 43-44). The use of rhetorical devices fit with the persuasive oratory of preaching the Gospel, but for Augustine, there was a differentiation between expression of truth and truth itself. Above being an accomplished rhetorician, Augustine considered himself a philosopher and theologian. Medieval rhetoricians like Augustine believed truth was determined by religious sources. He believed â€Å"one does not learn from another but from an ‘inner teacher’ from whom one receives instruction through introspection† (Ijsseling 44). Augustine is speaking of prayer, an inner dialogue between Christ and individual, with no agents between the two. This belief implies two important factors future thought: (1) the emergence in the concept of the individual, who can have a personal relationship with the divine; and (2) an ideological validation of absolute truth, which could be discovered through this relationship with the divine, within which language has limitations. In the greater scheme of medieval scholasticism, rhetoric was considered part of the trivium, alongside grammar and dialectics, but differentiated from the quadrivum, which included music, astronomy, geometry, and arithmetic. Instead of emphasis in philosophy, theology was considered most important. Rhetorical strategies were applied to Christian thought, and continued with limited use in the scholastic field and in praise of Christ. Rhetoric was used in exercises of reason and argumentation, as Scripture was subject to interpretation and application. There was not much development of rhetorical theory as much as rhetorical practice. The liberal arts education structure continued on into the Renaissance period, as did the philosophy. But what did change during this transition was a renewed sense of humanism and renewed sense of rhetorical style. As the economic force of early capitalism emerged, power began to shift. There was a lot of money to be made in the exchange of goods. The economic force of early capitalism was emerging, distributing power away from the church and monarchs, and towards port cities and city-states where this exchange of goods and idea was taking place. The Renaissance was marked with a cultural reinvigoration of goods and ideas, occurring most specifically in Italy. At the forefront of this cultural change were the Italian Humanists, who proved to be the new rhetoricians of the age. The Humanists saw medieval philosophy as loosing ties with political and social life. The art of rhetoric and applied principles had been isolated, away from political practice. They wanted to apply philosophy and rhetoric to the world beyond the walls of monasteries, â€Å"turning quite consciously to classical rhetoric for aesthetic and practical reasons† (Ijsseling 54). Their objective concerned the world of common man and his culture, in relation to these absolute truths like those presented by theology. Rhetoric, especially in the form of poetry, held great value by the Humanists. The invigoration of rhetoric, however, became overshadowed by the rational thought, which provided a basis for scientific development. The practice of rhetoric was again reduced to academics and social niceties, limited to style and delivery. Used primarily in etiquette, rhetoric and oratory proved useful for mercantilism as capitalist needed to create diplomatic relationships in business. The advent of the printing press shifted rhetoric from oral presentation to text. Rhetoric was largely ignored as the persuasion was limited by the overpowering format of text. Ideas had to be arranged formally and in a logical manner to fit within this new presentation. Rational thought proved more powerful than all. The scientific method was applied logically and showed the world as operating mechanistically through natural laws. By discovering this knowledge, man could now control these laws for their own utility, prompting invention and discovery. Rational thought was too overpowering to be undermined by the persuasion of language. Rhetoric was expected to appeal to the facilities of the mind by the emergence of a new sense of the individual and an understanding of the self. The scientist of the age wanted a new language, an objective language that would truthfully reflect these new ideas. The complex, eloquent language of rhetoric was to be erased, and instead, replaced with a new, simple language that appealed to the reason of man. This new rhetoric left behind the notion of persuasive technique and insisted upon itself to reflect the truth. But was this truth the actual truth of the world, or a reflection of a particular world made out to be universal? A handful of thinkers of the Modern age undermined the universal assumption of the modern thought. The development and establishment of capitalism occurred simultaneously with rational thought of science, and the reformation of the church, which up to that point held power over the ethical nature of society. Making full use of textual rhetoric, thinkers like Karl Marx argued the bourgeois class was based upon these universal assumptions, and upheld absolute truths by way of an ideology. According to Marx, relative concepts were made into concrete concepts. Superstructures were created to authenticate these concepts, and functioned to sustain power of one class in of society another. In German Ideology, Marx specifically attached the bourgeois ideas of property and the individual. According to Marx, to understand property as universal is to misunderstand its particular historically characteristics, which he shows within his five stages of historical materialism. The development into the capitalist labor structure consisted of â€Å"many different forms of ownership† (Marx 178), resulting in the subjugation of one class of economic producers by another class of property owners. The bourgeois and proletariat class identity was based on each class’s relation to the means of production. The hegemonic structure of society was interpreted as the natural, universal, and absolute process. According to Marx, ideology was created, maintained, and justified this social order. The bourgeois were articulate enough to define this understanding and had time and capital to exercise these rights of the individual, a concept, which Marx believed, they created for themselves. Marx argued the notion of the individual was an abstract concept Marx said was made concrete. Having its roots in development of the Christian doctrine that stressed an individual’s relationship with Christ, the source of all truth. and even further back to Platonic thought, the idea of the individual was further included to be a rational being who is logical in thought. This was supported by the superstructures like law, which favor the individual, a concept of this ideology. The created culture formed the universal and guaranteed particular rights to the individual. These truths were further supported by science, which was based upon natural laws within which the universe functioned. But most importantly, the concept of the individual effected the psyche of person: those of the bourgeois class were able to exercise the rights of the individual by fulfilling standards that, Marx argues, they created and therefore being an individual who is successful and cultured. The bourgeois identified with this individual as it was reinforced in society. On the other hand, the proletariat, as Marx argues, could not identify with this standard of the individual because of their relation to the means of production, which determined their class distinction. The means of production entailed exploitation of the lower classes by a higher class, which was deemed appropriate because of the individual’s right to choose employment and enter into contracts. The particular form these rights took was corrupted for those outside the bourgeois class. In the labor contract, the individual has the right to sign over his labor in exchange for capital. The bourgeois then use this individual’s labor to produce products, of which he makes a profit by attaching a value, another abstract concept made concrete. The fact the capitalist makes a profit, says Marx, shows that the laborer’s wage does not equal the value of his labor. If the laborer were given the true value of his labor, then the bourgeois would make no profit because the value of the product should be equal to the value of the labor used to product the product. This is exploitation of the proletariat by the bourgeois, says Marx. The ideology that created and maintained the capitalist system is the center of Marx’s critique. Its justification, apology, was based on the universal idea of the system. The system, in fact, is not universal but created by one class of people in order to preserve wealth and identity. This web, according to Marx, depended upon itself. Marx predicted this system would eventually implode as a revolution occurs when the contradiction between the means of production and social forces of classes comes to its final stage: communism, the end of historical materialism when there is no private ownership of property and no class distinctions. In his rhetoric, Marx was attacking the philosophical, economical, political history of modern society, and therefore threatening its validity. He insisted the truths of society was based on fact were not true, but made to be true in order to uphold capitalism and instilling power in bourgeois class. The notion of ideology was a radical claim. But the development of thought speaks for itself. Beginning with Aristotle’s syllogism in the classical period, concepts were treated as universal so particular issues could be related to their truth. The particular justified the universal as much as the universal justified the particular, building meaning and knowledge upon one another. In this context, the syllogism can be interpreted as the blue print for ideology. The superstructures Marx defined in his critique work in the same fashion, by way of the dialectical syllogism. Practical truths like those of religion and law were founded upon these abstract, but deemed universal, truths of concepts like that of the individual. The rhetoric of these institution echoes the rhetorical logic of the enthymeme. The universals were already assumed and one could logically infer the conclusion. Proven by its use, the role of rhetoric in facilitating the discourse of thought is the key factor within the precipitating formation of ideology and the limitation of language. Left to interpretation, language can change the meaning and can be manipulated to be whatever the user chooses. Language cannot reflect a truth and a reality that is dependent upon the changing forces of thought, just as thought cannot be defined by language. Aristotle. The Art of Rhetoric. Trans. H.C. Dawson-Tancred. London: Penguin, 2004. Gorgias. â€Å"Helen.† Readings from Classical Rhetoric. Ed. Patricia P. Matsen. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University, 1990. Ijsseling, Samuel. Rhetoric and Philosophy in Conflict: A Historical Survey. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1976. Ley, Graham. A Short Introduction to the Ancient Greek Theater. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1991 Marx, Karl. â€Å"German Ideology.† Selected Writings. Ed. Lawrence H. Simon. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1994. Research Papers on The Voice of RhetoricAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementCanaanite Influence on the Early Israelite ReligionAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andWhere Wild and West MeetComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoQuebec and CanadaPETSTEL analysis of IndiaBringing Democracy to AfricaStandardized Testing